Best practices in police personal security: A systematic review

■ Abstract. The difficult geopolitical situation in Ukraine creates new challenges for the law enforcement system and increases the relevance of ensuring the personal safety of police officers. This necessitates highlighting the problematic aspects of this area, as well as a detailed description of new dangerous challenges for the security and defence sector, shaped by the today’s reality. The purpose of this study was to analyse current trends in the investigation of the specifics of ensuring personal security of a police officer. Fulfilling this purpose required the use of a set of methods, including Internet heuristics, systematisation, and comparison. The principal findings outlined the specifics of the law enforcement system of Ukraine under martial law. A systematic analysis of the literature helped to identify the key dangerous factors and conditions that currently affect the state of personal security of law enforcement officials in the world. It was also found that the modern scientific literature does not sufficiently address the issue of ensuring personal safety of a police officer in the context of military operations. The study showed that in the current scientific discourse this problem is covered only through the lens of the existing shortcomings of standard education (training) programmes for law enforcement officials, which presently cannot ensure their safety. The absence of a theoretical component makes it important to find ways to implement the police officer’s right to safely perform their duties. The practical significance of this study is that its findings can be used by researchers for further investigation of this topic, as well as by practitioners to implement the most effective experience of ensuring the personal safety of police officers


■ Introduction
The work of law enforcement is inextricably linked to the growing levels of various types of crime, including organised and transnational crime, acts of terrorism, corruption, drug addiction, cybercrime, and arms trafficking.For Ukraine, an additional factor is the armed aggression by a neighbouring state.All the above aspects lead to an increase in the number of deaths, injuries, traumas, maiming, mental disorders, and suicides among law enforcement officers.The rapid increase in the number of crimes and incidents of violence threatens the quality and safety of law enforcement officers' lives and increases the risks to their mental health and professional effectiveness.
The negative trend outlined above is reflected in the scientific studies of contemporary researchers.J.C.V. Jiménez et al. (2020) concluded that over 14 years, the number of injuries sustained by the municipal police in Cadiz (Spain) had an identical number of arrests.At the same time, S. Koerner & M. Staller (2022) published statistics on attacks on German police officers from 2011 to 2022.These data indicate an increase in the number of attacks.Therewith, re-searchers at the American University of Pennsylvania D.B. Yanich & J.C. Gibbs (2024) identify a positive trend over the past few decades in relation to intentional attacks on police officers.B. Beck et al. (2024) highlight high-profile police killings in many US cities.In this context, it is also appropriate to note the study by E.R. Maguire & E.A. Paoline III (2023), in which experts determined the percentage of police officers who were injured while countering offenders.
Ukrainian researchers did not stay away from covering this issue either.T. Shevchenko (2022) examines cases of attacks on police officers and identifies sources of increased danger.V.V. Chumak (2019) provides examples of dangerous attacks on law enforcement officials in Georgia and compares them with the Baltic States and Ukraine.R.V. Dmytryk (2019) focuses on the ability of a police officer to lawfully resist attacks by aggressive individuals.On the other side of the issue, V. Bohuslavskyi (2019) found approaches and highlighted attacks on a police officer through the lens of information support.
Apart from stating the existence of the problem under study, the academic community offers its own vision of the factors and conditions of its occurrence.First of all, it is necessary to point out the findings of the study by K. Hine et al. (2018), where researchers identified the relationship between cognitive and physiological disorders and the ability of a police officer to successfully counteract aggressive influence.P.G.Renden et al. (2015) express an analogous opinion on the situation, identifying prominent levels of anxiety among officers in the performance of their duties.The factor of police anxiety in high-risk situations is partly related to the lack of practical experience of law enforcement officers.Furthermore, the shaky basis of theoretical knowledge and practical skills acquired in the system of education (training) on algorithms of police actions hinders the adoption of extremely complex and literally vital decisions.The findings V. Bondarenko (2018) confirm this statement.The researcher drew parallels between the inability of law enforcement officials to act effectively and safely in high-risk situations and the system of their education (training).
The generalisation of scientific research illustrates the fact that the system of training of law enforcement officials is considered by researchers as the basis for their safe work.However, it is imperfect in the current environment.Despite the considerable interest in the stated topic, it is marked by a host of problematic issues that need to be identified, theoretically addressed, and the results of which must be implemented in the practical activities of the security and defence sector.Therefore, the purpose of this study was to review the literature on both the current challenges to police officers' personal security in the modern Ukrainian reality and the literature that investigates and highlights the latest police training measures.The analysis of these two groups of research will help to understand what qualitative innovations the police training system needs to better ensure their personal safety in modern conditions.
The research methodology was based on such methods of survey research as Internet heuristics, systematisation, and comparison.The first method used in the study was a systematic keyword search of available published research on the topic in scientific literature databases.This approach helped to collect a wide range of data from various sources for further analysis.The second method used in the study was systematisation.This method involved organising the collected information into a logical structure to understand and summarise its key findings.The systematisation helped to organise the analysed literature and identify key themes and trends in understanding how to ensure police officers' personal safety.The third method employed in the study was comparison.It was used to analyse analogous and different views, interpretations, results, and conclusions of the scientists who investigated the issue.

■ Ensuring personal safety of a police officer in the context of military operations
Due to the current reality, the newly formed duties of representatives of the law are closely related to the introduction of martial law in Ukraine.Such conditions, in which non-standard scenarios often arise, have considerably expanded the requirements for police officers and, as a result, affected their safety.In support of this opinion, the findings of S. Koerner & M. Staller (2022) can be cited -German scientists have concluded that modern conditions, not only martial law, require prominent standards of awareness, decision-making, and interaction skills from police officers.
The current day-to-day activities of Ukrainian law enforcement officials result in a high level of deaths and injuries among their personnel.S.B. Kuzikova et al. (2023a) and S.B. Kuzikova et al. (2023b) highlighted this issue in their studies.For the most part, a considerable percentage of the negative consequences are related to the need to ensure the highest international standards of policing in the de-occupied and adjacent territories.However, even in such circumstances, it is vital to ensure the safety and effectiveness of the police to maintain law and order and protect civil rights and freedoms.Of importance for the investigation of the problematic under study are the findings of S. Kurt & G. Tüysüzoğlu (2023), Turkish researchers who addressed the issue of the de-occupied territories around Nagorno-Karabakh after the war.Their study provides a solid basis for understanding the current political and geopolitical context of the region and can serve as a valuable source of information for further research in this area.
The need for law enforcement in this area is driven by the desire of Ukrainian citizens to return to cities, villages, etc. liberated from the invaders.The findings of I. Bohdanov et al. (2023) confirm this statement.The researchers found that 52.8% of respondents expressed a desire to return to the de-occupied territories.In this context, it is worth mentioning the study by A. Petryna (2023), who examines the issue of security in the de-occupied territories not only in the context of Ukraine, but also at the general theoretical level, which emphasises the significance of understanding this aspect for ensuring stability and security in regions where military operations are ongoing.
In the context of a full-scale war, the law enforcement system of Ukraine is gaining advanced, but negative, experience, which comes with a significant risk to the safety of law enforcement officers.This statement can be confirmed by the example of police counteraction to illegal armed formations of the aggressor country in the form of subversive and reconnaissance groups (SRGs).It is a small special unit formed of individuals who are specially trained, properly armed and equipped and aim to inflict maximum damage on the enemy.This situation presents law enforcement agencies with difficult tasks of ensuring the security and protection of citizens in the context of military conflict (Subversive and reconnaissance group..., n.d.).
In this context, it is appropriate to note the findings of B. Fink et al. (2024), in which the researchers emphasise that special tactical units differ from other units in that they perform more physically demanding tasks.The above indicates the need for parity in physical development of law enforcement officers and defines a prominent level of their physical development as an axiom of police service.W.G. Barbosa et al. (2022) substantiate the professional suitability of a police officer to perform tasks with high physical activity.The experimental observational and longitudinal study confirmed that after six months of training at the academy, during which physical exercise was not the main goal, but its regularity was maintained, the cadets' physical fitness indicators continued to improve.The findings of the study indicate that regular training at the level of minimum physical standards can potentially contribute to the health and long-term career prospects of police officers.
As of the first half of 2024, there is no algorithm for countering illegal armed groups by law enforcement officials.However, the general picture of resistance to the negative phenomenon is still covered in scientific studies.Thus, J.C. Ruiz Vásquez et al. (2023) consider the possibility of eliminating illegal armed groups by strengthening the security and defence sector.The key contribution to this issue was made by V.P. Gorodnov et al. (2021), who determined the amount of ammunition needed during a battle with an SRG before reinforcements arrived.U.A. Aja (2024) expressed an analogous scientific approach.Therewith, the study raised the prominent issue of the proliferation of weapons among the civilian population.The study recommends the adoption of a national strategy that considers the nexus between governance and security as a panacea for stemming the tide of illicit small arms and light weapons proliferation in Nigeria.
Over the two years of the full-scale invasion, the law enforcement system of Ukraine has identified promising steps to effectively counteract the SRGs, namely: 1) transition of law enforcement officers from semi-automatic weapons (pistols), which are the standard weapons of law enforcement officers, to the use of automatic weapons (assault rifles and their modifications); 2) improvement of tactical training (mastering theoretical knowledge and practical skills of moving in open and closed areas, as well as algorithms of actions during the approach and inspection of buildings); 3) ensuring an adequate level of equipment (this criterion requires not only a material component); 4) compliance with the regulatory requirements that allow a police officer to act according to the existing level of threat (including the possibility of proactive use of firearms); 5) coherence in actions and communication between representatives of the security and defence sector.
However, the above is only a part of the newly emerging challenges for the law enforcement system.Activities in the de-occupied and adjacent territories are an unusual and rather dangerous factor for the life and health of law enforcement officers.An absolutely new level of threat is caused by the high degree of contamination of the territory with explosive devices, the presence and active work of illegal armed groups, the unwillingness of certain categories of the population to recognise the legitimate authorities, the existence of a developed system of collaboration, artillery shelling, war crimes, a considerable number of people suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder, and the presence of a significant number of unregistered weapons in the possession of civilians.The activity of law enforcement officers in such conditions without appropriate training considerably increases the possibility of bodily harm and causes deaths among law enforcement personnel.
Current reality shows that standard training programmes, the key of which is the International Criminal Investigative Training Assistance Programme of the US Department of Justice (ICITAP), which was introduced in Ukraine in 2005 and aims to help the government develop professional and transparent law enforcement agencies that protect human rights and freedoms, fight corruption, cybercrime, and the activities of transnational criminal groups, as well as counter extremist and terrorist organisations (The Criminal Division..., n.d.), cannot ensure the safe operation of a police officer in the face of a full-scale invasion.
Despite the considerable number of programmes implemented around the world, namely 1) support for post-conflict reconstruction in the Balkans; 2) curriculum development in Pakistan; 3) new police academies in Iraq; 4) advanced training of trainers in Tanzania, ICITAP police instructors do not have relevant experience in the field.N. Maksimentseva & M. Maksimentsev (2024) point out that stabilisation and transition strategies in countries such as Afghanistan and Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have undergone significant efforts to restore security and establish effective law enforcement and judicial systems after periods of conflict, are now becoming relevant for Ukraine in regions that have undergone transformation as a result of armed conflict.While these strategies serve as a fundamental framework, they are not definitive and will be adjusted to reflect Ukraine's unique circumstances.Depending on the criminological situation in the particular liberated territories, these strategies may be revised or supplemented with additional approaches and measures.Maintaining a comprehensive strategic focus on fighting crime, based on preventive measures such as disarmament, demobilisation, and reintegration, stays essential.Transitional justice will play a key role in this effort.The successful implementation of post-war strategic initiatives will require considerable support from international donors, UN agencies, the EU, and other global partners.In Ukraine, the issue of training personnel to perform their duties in the de-occupied and adjacent territories is particularly relevant, as preliminary estimates suggest that the event will involve 50,000 law enforcement officers.At the same time, the experience gained by the law enforcement system of Ukraine allows identifying measures that can ensure the safe operation of police officers in these extremely difficult conditions.
Considering the above research findings, it is particularly important to conduct additional educational activities aimed at gaining police officers' experience in the context of military conflict: the need for enhanced physical training, work with civilians, the proliferation of weapons and the activities of SRGs all pose additional risks for which law enforcement officers should be prepared.In this regard, it is necessary to consider the global experience of such initiatives and their coverage in the scientific literature.

■ Police training as a factor in ensuring their personal safety
Modern trends in society create new and previously unknown challenges for the law enforcement system, where effective counteraction to the criminal environment makes it impossible for law enforcement to operate safely.S. Koerner & M. Staller (2022) show that the police profession is inextricably linked to risk, as these professionals face violent conflicts in the course of their duties.P.G.Renden et al. (2015) shares an analogous opinion.Dutch researchers are considering the possibility that police officers may have to deal with aggressive individuals who threaten them, resist arrest, and cause physical injury.In their opinion, in such cases, law enforcement officers should use the necessary force but refrain from using firearms.However, this approach can lead to an increase in the number of injuries related to the performance of official duties.This problem may arise due to the complexity of the situation and the need to properly manage conflict situations without the intervention of firearms, which may be too radical a solution.
Considering the negative dynamics of attacks on police officers, as well as the inability of law enforcement officials to effectively resist aggressive individuals, the problem of ensuring the personal safety of police officers is becoming particularly acute and relevant in most countries of the world.At the same time, the above is evidence that the established standards of fighting crime have faced a new milestone in this area.I. Okhrimenko et al. (2020) highlighted the issue of the unsatisfactory system of education (training) of law enforcement officers and the inability of the latter to fully perform police functions.Analysing this factor, O. Avramenko & V. Kucher (2020) propose ways to address it.Researchers emphasise the need to improve the quality of training of law enforcement officials and further improvement of the system of their education (training).Researchers also point to the need to focus on in-depth legal knowledge, development of legal and psychological culture in the training of future police officers.They particularly emphasise the significance of improving the education system by ensuring that it is technologically advanced and practically oriented, that it is research and development-oriented, and that it develops skills and abilities that often become automatic.Generally, specialists should prepare for concrete areas of activity that are adapted to real-world conditions.In this context, of value are the remarks of O.S. Pronevych (2011), who highlighted the role of security measures in the context of the legal framework of the police in Germany and Poland.These mechanisms can be used to improve the police training system in Ukraine as well.
The exercise of a police officer's right to perform their duties safely involves the use of a comprehensive mechanism that includes a system of education and training.This process is accompanied by a range of activities aimed at achieving concrete results.Notably, the effectiveness of these measures directly depends on the longstanding experience of the police system in fighting crime.This area of ensuring personal security of police officers has its positive and negative aspects depending on the country.The United States of America is generally considered the leader in this area.The country is implementing a considerable number of programmes aimed at educating (training) police officers for safe practice.V. Timashova (2013) highlights some of these programmes in her study.Analysing her research, it becomes clear that the training measures she investigated are closely intertwined with the everyday activities of law enforcement officials, providing the latter with the theoretical knowledge and practical skills necessary to ensure their safety.The emerging levels of danger on the path of a police career are variable and directly related to the current picture of the world.The crime situation and military conflicts show that aggressive influence on a police officer manifests itself in various, completely unpredictable forms.The counter-argument in this regard is the ability of a lawyer to implement their theoretical knowledge and practical skills acquired in the system of education (training).However, in today's reality, the above system of education (training) is imperfect.L. Alison et al. (2022) highlight the general state of affairs in this area.
In this context, it is worth citing the findings of scientific research that contribute to solving this problem.Thus, a group of Spanish scientists C.F.P. Calderón et al. (2023) focused on the physical condition and stress level of law enforcement officials.Although stress and physical fitness of police officers are not directly the subject of this study, they cannot be ignored, as they are closely related to the factors of ensuring the personal safety of law enforcement officers.Researchers have found an inverse relationship between the level of stress experienced by police officers at work and their physical activity levels.Thus, the study emphasises the vital role of physical fitness as a factor of stress resistance, which is necessary in modern conditions.
N. Lee & Y.K. Wu (2024) rightly address the specifics of the work of law enforcement officials, stating that it is a stressful and extremely demanding profession that requires maximum concentration of a high level of consciousness and awareness in many areas.Comparable scientific approaches have also been expressed by P. Gullon-Scott & L. Longstaff (2024), P.A. Faria et al. (2024).Clearly, the performance of tasks assigned to police officers, especially in extreme conditions, adversely affects the general condition of law enforcement officers.The results of the specifics of such work are highlighted in a study by M.G.Harris & K.M. OʼBrien (2024), who noted negative psychological effects, including stress and symptoms of depression, as a result of prolonged exposure to adverse conditions.J. Nisbet et al. (2023) reached an anal-ogous conclusion, moreover, the researchers identified frequent contacts of law enforcement officers with various potentially psychologically traumatic events that can lead to symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder and other mental health disorders of police officers.It is also worth mentioning the research of A.F. Moreno et al. (2024).Their findings suggest that there is growing interest in developing programmes to minimise the impact of the stressful nature of police work.Having thoroughly analysed them, the researchers recommend that their peers and clinicians involved in the preparation of these programmes include simulations of critical scenarios based on real-world conditions whenever possible.This can help improve decision-making, stress management, self-regulation, and performance in challenging situations, as well as ensure ecological validity and transferability of skills to real-world contexts.
The above is especially important considering the findings of P.G.Renden et al. (2015), which suggest that there is insufficient information on the ability of officers to adequately manage their actions in the performance of their duties in high-risk situations, as well as the factors that directly affect this process.For the most part, law enforcement officials may not be prepared for critical incidents in the real world due to a lack of experience in making decisions under severe physiological stress.In a state of overwhelm or inability to cope with the problem, a wrong decision can potentially lead to dire consequences, such as injury or death, not only for law enforcement officers but also for civilians.This is explained by the fact that a police officer is, first and foremost, a person endowed with a very concrete set of physiological characteristics of the body and a range of biochemical processes where hormones act as regulators, the secretion of which, in critical circumstances, plays a crucial role.
A synthesis of scientific research shows that in situations with a considerable risk to the life and health of a police officer, one can sometimes observe uncertainty, ignorance, or disregard for the basics of personal safety, or, on the contrary, aggression towards a person in need of help.Often, such behaviour by a law enforcement officer results in human rights violations that have led to dire consequences.This is confirmed by the findings of M. Christopher et al. (2024).Researchers have argued that during extreme situations, law enforcement officers use excessive force without controlling their actions.Police brutality is a widespread phenomenon around the world.B. Magaloni (2024) came to this conclusion in his study.
Without going into further detail on the unlawful actions of law enforcement officials in situations with a substantial risk to life and health, it is worth highlighting some of the specific features of such behaviour.Confusion or aggression in the actions of a police officer is primarily related not to the level of their theoretical knowledge or practical skills, as it may seem at first glance, but to the physiological characteristics of the human body, which are manifested in that when a person feels in danger, the adrenal glands secrete the so-called stress hormones, including epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and the natural glucocorticoid hormone cortisol, also known as the stress hormone, as confirmed by M.M. Oros & O.V. Hal (2021).These are different hormones that affect the human body in different ways.They pose a health hazard only when released in large quantities or when a person is in a state of permanent stress.At this point, it should be noted that a group of physiologically active substances (catecholamines), including epinephrine and norepinephrine, are released into the bloodstream when a person experiences strong emotional arousal or danger.At the physiological level, this is manifested by the fight-or-flight response (also called hyperarousal or acute stress response).
In other words, the physiological reaction of the body in response to a dangerous event, physical injury or threat to life limits the police officer's ability to some extent, and in essence, returns the person to the elementary basic movements possible only through muscle memory.However, to preserve life, the law requires a representative of the law to make a decision on further actions, namely, to resist or, on the contrary, to try to avoid interaction with a source of increased danger.Evidence from A. Nieuwenhuys et al. (2009) suggests that declining police productivity affects other complex procedural skills, including arrest and self-defence behaviour, which are commonly used by law enforcement in high-risk situations.Notably, the amount of stress hormone secretion directly depends on the level of danger, the duration of the event, and the individual characteristics of the law enforcement officer's body.Only with the passage of time or de-escalation of the situation can a police officer regain control of themselves and return to consciously performing their duties.P.M. Di Nota & J.-M.Huhta (2019) made the most significant contribution in this area.The researchers concluded that it is necessary to conduct practical exercises with the most realistic levels of stress.According to scientists, such a system of education (training) can minimise the secretion of stress hormones in extreme situations and, as a result, reduce the negative effects of interaction between law enforcement officers and the public.J.C.V. Jiménez et al. (2020) and M.H. Martaindale et al. (2024) share an analogous opinion, identifying the use of realistic situational scenarios capable of providing a level of stress comparable to practical activities as one of the key features of the education (training) system.
At the same time, part of the academic community addresses other aspects of police training, namely the pedagogical approach to the teaching system and the professional awareness of the person responsible for this process.M. Staller et al. (2022), concluded that it is necessary to use modern pedagogical approaches in the system of education (training) of law enforcement officers.The findings of Ukrainian researchers D.V. Shvets et al. (2020) suggest the possibility of improving the education (training) system by optimising teaching technologies.In this context, it is appropriate to note the conclusion reached by S.J. Simon (2023), namely on the significance of the competence of the instructor involved in the educational process.
In today's Ukrainian reality, ensuring the personal safety of police officers directly depends on the response of their education (training) system to new challenges.In other words, the system does not always have time to adapt to new police security requirements, thus creating "time gaps".The results of a series of trainings for police trainers on police operations in the de-occupied territories, held in the first quarter of 2024 with the involvement of experts from the European Union Advisory Mission Ukraine (Partnership in action: Training..., 2024), suggest that the safe operation of law enforcement officers in the de-occupied and adjacent territories requires the following: 1) enhanced tactical training, namely basic training in individual and small groups, where the purpose is to ensure the safety and security of personnel; 2) awareness of the risks associated with explosive devices; 3) ability to provide aid to the wounded in combat situations; 4) mastery of algorithms for law enforcement, organisation of checkpoints, patrolling, evacuation of the population, communication, and interaction with other units of the security and defence sector; 5) increased level of firearms proficiency; 6) understanding the algorithms of action in the event of artillery fire.

■ Conclusions
The issue of ensuring the personal safety of police officers is relevant all over the world.Current research shows a negative trend -attacks on law enforcement officers that end in tragic consequences have moved from the category of emergency events to everyday occurrences.This demonstrates the inability of law enforcement officials, despite the presence and ability to use firearms, to effectively counter aggressive individuals.For the most part, researchers agree that the system of education (training) of law enforcement personnel, which is a mechanism for exercising the right of a law enforcement officer to safely perform their duties, is imperfect and does not ensure the proper level of police safety in the performance of their duties.
Since most researchers consider the problem of ensuring personal security of police officers through the lens of standard law enforcement activities, without considering the aggravating factor of military conflict, the findings of their studies suggest the need to address only the "weaknesses" of the existing system.However, the need to fundamentally reformat or improve the system of education (training) of law enforcement personnel is driven by the current Ukrainian reality, where the law enforcement system is directly linked to previously unknown challenges that create additional threats and increased demands on police officers.They are largely related to the need to ensure the highest international standards of policing in the de-occupied and adjacent territories, as well as the situational intensification of illegal armed groups of the aggressor country.
A positive impetus for improving the situation in general is the construction of a completely new architecture of police education (training), which should factor in the newly emerging threats and provide conditions for reducing negative incidents related to the personal safety of law enforcement officers, especially injuries and deaths of law enforcement personnel.An optimised model for ensuring the personal safety of police officers should be based on the experience of the law enforcement system of Ukraine gained during the years of countering a full-scale invasion and should include the following components: enhanced tactical training; awareness of the risks of explosive substances and objects; sufficient knowledge of tactical medicine; mastery of algorithms for law enforcement under martial law; improved firearms skills; mastery of algorithms for action in the event of artillery fire.A promising step in today's reality is to find ways to increase police awareness of explosive devices, algorithms for countering sabotage and reconnaissance groups, and ensuring safety during artillery fire.The newly developed model of law enforcement training should partially or fully replace existing police training programmes, depending on the country.The investigation of the regional specifics of the implementation of these programmes is a promising avenue for future research in this area.

■ Conflict of Interest
The author of this study declare no conflict of interest.